TPS News

TPS的編輯教授在此歡迎關於學術文章的所有詢問，當然，其實他並沒有足夠的時間給你。他擁有終身教職的教授身份，也是著名的學術巨作作者。即便如此，他仍大方地接受你們的詢問。將關於學術方面的詢問寫在下方，你將獲得教授的親自指導，陶冶對學術的探索與啟發。
The professor awaits your query on academic writing, though in all honesty, he doesn’t have a lot of time for you. He is a tenured full professor and working on yet another magnificent academic tome. Even so, he has graciously consented to entertain your question. Submit it and prepare to be edified.

QUESTION: My professor advised me during an interim review that I ought to start over completely on my paper. I thought he was kidding. He wasn’t. Have you ever heard of anything so crazy?
期中檢討的時候，教授建議我重寫論文。我以為他在開玩笑，但他是認真的。你聽過這麼瘋狂的事嗎？

Craziness comes in many flavors. When your professor advised you, was he sitting on his desk in his bikini pajamas, a Teddy bear on his lap, and peering at you through an eyeglass? That would be crazy. By comparison, his suggestion that you begin anew on your paper might be the sanest advice you’ll get all year. Your professor has seen enough academic writing to recognize early on when a paper is lame enough to warrant a mercy killing. That’s what he was doing, telling you to put it out of its misery. You should thank him, not question his mental stability.
瘋狂有很多種，你的教授提出建議時，是不是穿著比基尼睡衣坐在桌子上，腿上放隻泰迪熊，從單眼眼鏡後面看你？如果是的話，他是瘋了沒錯。否則的話，他要你重寫論文的提議，可能是你這輩子獲得最明智的建議。教授看過太多學術文章了，很早就能判斷一篇文章是否呆板無趣，不如提早安樂死，早點結束論文悲慘的命運。你應該感激他，而不是懷疑他精神有問題。

Let’s assume for a moment that your professor is correct. I also will assume that he told you why he believed your efforts were destined to fail. You don’t share those details, so I will guess the writing was thin and nonacademic, the structure faulty, and / or the research inadequate. It really doesn’t matter. What matters is your reaction. You balked. This tells me two things: You have so little regard for your instructor that you doubt he knows as much about paper-writing as you do, or you have become so attached to your writing that you can’t give it up when challenged.
先假設你的教授是對的，也告訴了你為什麼他認為你最後一定徒勞無功。你沒有寫出這些細節，所以我猜可能是內容空洞、缺乏學術價值，結構有問題，或者研究不充分。這些都不要緊，要緊的是你的反應。你猶疑了，這告訴我兩件事：你不看重指導教授，覺得他對寫論文懂得沒有你多；或者你對自己的文章非常執著，不願因為別人質疑而放棄。

Revising an entire paper, or even a passage, can be an ordeal. Every writer blanches at the prospect. We fall in love with our words. We convince ourselves our premise is sound, our research complete, our argument unassailable. Yet writers can get so close to their work that they lose all perspective. A professor is a perspective-restorer. He isn’t there at the creation. He only sees what the paper has become, or where it is headed. Your dismissal of his critical opinion suggests that you are not serious about learning. Be smart. Heed his advice. Rewrite the paper.
重新修訂整篇論文，甚至只是一小段，都可能是場試煉。每個寫作的人都不喜歡別人挑剔自己的文章。我們會愛上自己寫的文章，自以為假設毫無瑕疵，研究完整全面，論點無懈可擊。然而當局者迷，作者往往會失去判斷力。教授卻能看得很清楚，文章不是他寫出來的，他只看已經成形的文章，或文章的方向。你拒絕教授的批判意見，或許表示你對做學問不夠認真。聰明點，謹慎看待教授的意見，重寫論文吧。

真正的學者不會竊取他人的想法，不過研究過程中，有時可能無意間侵占了其他研究者的想法或表達方式。本系列「避免抄襲的七大方法」提供訣竅，幫助你避免不小心冒用他人的心血結晶。每則訣竅將刊登在 TPS 專頁。
A true scholar is not a thief. Yet stealing another researcher’s ideas or method of expressing them sometimes happens inadvertently in the course of research. How to avoid accidentally passing off someone else’s work as your own is the subject of this series, “7 Tips for Avoiding Plagiarism.” Each of the tips will be presented on the TPS Fan page before being compiled with the others as a series.

Tip # 5 – Take notes meticulously
方法五：仔細作筆記

There are many reasons to take notes carefully in researching a paper, beginning with the admonition of your professors to do so. They have been around for an academic season or two and have read the drab texts of poorly recorded research. The drabness is from inadequate quotation, incomplete attribution, and quite evident guesswork. When a writer does not create clear notes from clearly identified sources, the paper produced will lack the sheen of scholarship.
寫論文作研究時，有很多理由應該仔細作筆記，首先教授就會告誡你要這麼做。教授在學校待了幾年，早就看過有些研究記錄拙劣，讀起來乏味。這些論文之所以單調乏味，是因為引用不足，未完整註明出處，通篇缺乏真憑實據。作者如果沒有清楚作筆記，說明資料來源，文章就會缺乏學術價值。

Note-taking is not a science, nor an art. It is a process that each academic writer can master by being methodical. What method a writer chooses is up to him. But it should be consistent and clear. Example: If a source is being quoted, always use quotation marks. If it is a paraphrase with a quoted element, always ensure the quote is in quotation marks. The key takeaway in that recommendation is not “quotation marks;” it is “always.” Be consistent. Be methodical.
作筆記無關科學或藝術的理論與技巧，而是一種程序，只要有條有理，每個學術寫作者都能做得很好。作者可以自己選擇作筆記的規則，但必須前後一致，清楚明瞭。舉例來說，如果原文是引言，一定要加引號；如果原文結合換句話說及引言，引言的部分一定要加引號。這些規則的重點不是「加引號」，而是「一定要」；記得，規則要前後一致，有條有理。

Carefully separate source material from personal notes about the material. Otherwise, a writer can unknowingly end up quoting himself. When interviewing someone, record the date and name of the interviewee. When drawing from books, articles, and audio and video recordings, precisely note the point of extraction. In all note-taking, be neat. And whatever else you do, don’t rely on memory. The time between research and writing can wipe memory clean, or mangle it.
作筆記時，要小心分開引用的原文與個人的筆記內容，否則可能不知不覺引用了自己的話。作訪談時，要記錄訪談時間與受訪者的姓名。引用圖書、文章、影音紀錄時，要精確記錄摘錄的頁面或時間。寫任何筆記字跡要工整。此外，不管你做什麼，絕不要仰賴記憶，研究和寫作會相隔一段時間，讓你把事情忘得一乾二淨，儘管記得也是殘缺不全。

真正的學者不會竊取他人的想法，不過研究過程中，有時可能無意間侵占了其他研究者的想法或表達方式。本系列「避免抄襲的七大方法」提供訣竅，幫助你避免不小心冒用他人的心血結晶。每則訣竅將刊登在 TPS 專頁。
A true scholar is not a thief. Yet stealing another researcher’s ideas or method of expressing them sometimes happens inadvertently in the course of research. How to avoid accidentally passing off someone else’s work as your own is the subject of this series, “7 Tips for Avoiding Plagiarism.” Each of the tips will be presented on the TPS Fan page before being compiled with the others as a series.

Tip # 4 – Quote, paraphrase, or don’t use
方法四：「引用」與「換句話說」

What are quotations and paraphrases and why do writers employ them? The question is a good one. Some writers clearly haven’t figured it out. A person is quoted or paraphrased because the person speaking is a relevant, authoritative voice. A quote is used because it is weighty or memorable. Paraphrasing occurs either as a succinct summary of something relevant, or because the paraphrase contains a key word or phrase, which is bracketed in quote marks for emphasis.
什麼是引用，什麼又是換句話說？為什麼寫作時要引用或換句話說？好問題，有些寫作的人也還沒弄清楚答案。引用某人的話，或換句話說，是因為那個人有地位、有權威；引用一句話，是因為那句話言之有理、過目難忘。換句話說則是簡要介紹相關的重要論述，其中也可以包含關鍵的詞句，並以引號括起、標明。

Always clearly attribute paraphrased or quoted material to its author, such as, “According to city historian Lee Chen,…” Attribution should be near the borrowed material to avoid confusion. Quotations should be exact and in proper context, whereas paraphrases obviously should not be word for word, but must be accurate in thrust and tone. And beware of writing sentences that duplicate a source’s original structure; it is possible to plagiarize the construction of content.
引用他人文句或換句話說時，一定要明確寫出原作者，例如：「城市史學家陳大年(並非特定人物名，暫稱)說，…」。作者的名字和引用的段落不能相隔太遠，以免混淆。引用必須一字不差，語境必須適切，而換句話說自然不能逐字抄襲，但主旨、語調必須一致。此外，句型也要小心不能和原文句型一模一樣，否則就是抄襲原文結構。

You say, if quoting a source is fraught with so many dangers, why should I do it? You shouldn’t, unless a paper will be weaker without attributed material. But it also is true that a paper will be weak if it contains too much borrowed material, even when attributed, so use only as much as necessary to document a point. Research uncovers worthy ideas and statements. Using them to buttress an argument in a paper is perfectly justified—so long as you don’t try to steal them.
你可能覺得奇怪，既然引用文章要這樣如履薄冰，為什麼還要引用呢？說得沒錯，除非缺乏引證，論文會顯得薄弱，否則就不需引用。不過，如果論文借用太多他人的文句，即使註明是引用，也會顯得薄弱。因此，引用必須恰到好處，足以支持論點即可。研究的目的是發掘有價值的觀點與理念，可以引經據典，支持論述，但可別不告而取。

TPS的編輯教授在此歡迎關於學術文章的所有詢問，當然，其實他並沒有足夠的時間給你。他擁有終身教職的教授身份，也是著名的學術巨作作者。即便如此，他仍大方地接受你們的詢問。將關於學術方面的詢問寫在下方，你將獲得教授的親自指導，陶冶對學術的探索與啟發。
The professor awaits your query on academic writing, though in all honesty, he doesn’t have a lot of time for you. He is a tenured full professor and working on yet another magnificent academic tome. Even so, he has graciously consented to entertain your question. Submit it and prepare to be edified.

QUESTION: I hate deadlines for papers, but, of course, I can’t get away from them. Is there any secret to learning to live happily with deadlines?
寫論文最討厭截稿期限，但我當然也沒辦法擺脫截止期限。有沒有甚麼秘訣，可以讓我學會輕鬆應付截稿期限？

You bring a realistic, if dispirited, attitude to the whole subject. Yes, deadlines are a fact of life, certainly of academic life. If there is a secret, it is this: Rather than pine to “get away from them,” embrace deadlines and use them to your advantage. That always is the choice when rules are imposed. One can either consider a rule a restraint and try to get out of it, or look upon it as structure upon which you can order your life. In the case of a deadline for submitting a paper, view it as a target, a goal, as something you want to reach, rather than as something to overcome.
你對這件事的態度儘管有點消極，不過倒很實際。的確，截稿期限無可避免，在學術生活中更司空見慣。真要說有什麼秘訣，大概就是－與其想要「擺脫期限」，不如好好利用期限，從中得益。凡有規則時，都能選擇用這種態度面對。你可以把規則看成限制，想辦法擺脫規則，或者把規則看成一種結構，幫助你安排生活。論文的截稿期限可以當成一種目標、目的，看成追求的目標，而不是要克服的事物。

Deadlines serve two functions, three if you count the cutoff date a professor gives himself to have in hand assigned papers. For a writer, the first function of a deadline is as planning tool. The day a piece of academic writing is assigned is the starting point, the day it is due is the ending point. Between the two points is an amorphous period of time waiting to be shaped and utilized. A wise writer will look at the writing project and methodically divide the allotted time into planning, researching and writing blocks—interim deadlines!—and adhere to them.
截止期限有兩種功能，如果教授定的論文作業繳交期限也算在內，那就有三種功能。對作者來說，首先截止期限有助規劃工作。教授指派論文的那天是起點，繳交期限那天是終點，兩點間的時間就由作者規劃、利用。聰明的作者會思考作業內容，井然有序地分配自己的時間，區分成計畫、研究與寫作等區塊，每個區塊各有自己的截止時間，然後按照計畫執行。

The other primary function of a deadline is to motivate a writer. The end date can be viewed as a negative motivator—“I dread thinking about it!”—or as a positive one. A sensible writer will recognize his personal work habits and adjust them to accommodate a deadline. The fact is, some people are methodical and systematic in their pacing and routinely finish their work early without a deadline even being imposed; others have work habits characterized by spells of drifting interspersed with spurts of efficient labor. To the latter, a deadline is a best friend.
截止期限的另一項主要功能，就是激勵作者，可能是負面的動力（「我想到都會怕！」），或是正面動力。明智的作者能掌握自己的工作習慣，並根據截止期限調整習慣。實際上，有些人會有條不紊、有計畫地調整步調，即使沒有截止期限，也會提早完成工作；而有些人寫作時，多半的時間進度起伏不定，偶爾工作效率才會突然提升，這種人就很需要截止期限了。

真正的學者不會竊取他人的想法，不過研究過程中，有時可能無意間侵占了其他研究者的想法或表達方式。本系列「避免抄襲的七大方法」提供訣竅，幫助你避免不小心冒用他人的心血結晶。每則訣竅將刊登在 TPS 專頁。
A true scholar is not a thief. Yet stealing another researcher’s ideas or method of expressing them sometimes happens inadvertently in the course of research. How to avoid accidentally passing off someone else’s work as your own is the subject of this series, “7 Tips for Avoiding Plagiarism.” Each of the tips will be presented on the TPS Fan page before being compiled with the others as a series.

Tip # 3 – Resolve to give credit generously
方法三：詳實引注，解決剽竊疑慮

If ever there is a time to go the extra mile—and life is rife with such opportunities—giving full credit in a paper to the work of another scholar is one such time. Penury is a foolish habit in general, but being ungenerous in the academic realm can be particularly dangerous. Egos that drive academicians to discover new truths are easily bruised when the work is not duly credited. In the worst case, such insults can come back to haunt the slighter in legal and professional ways.
生命中許多時候，應該多花點時間，多付出一些努力－在論文中充分標註引用的他人成果，就是這樣的時機。吝嗇往往不是好習慣，而在學術領域，這種吝於付出可能特別危險。學者發掘真理，若心血沒有獲得適當尊重，很容易損及他們的自尊情感，尤有甚者，這份怠慢可能回過頭來，讓人在法律或學術生涯上付出代價。

So in laying out the framework of a paper and preparing to dive into research, let the good scholar thus resolve: Where the work of a previous researcher is a springboard to new understanding, the debt owed the earlier discoverer will be openly and frankly paid. Honesty is the best policy. Transparent appreciation for the work of predecessors not only strengthens a paper by firmly grounding it in a discipline, it sets the stage for new revelation and argument.
因此，構思論文架構，準備潛心研究前，負責任的學者就該下定決心：如果借助了前人的研究成果，因此獲得新的見解，就有責任公開、坦承地將功勞歸於之前的研究者。誠實方為上策，坦率地感謝前人的成果不僅有助奠立論文的學術根基，也提供了新發現與話題討論的舞台。

Where it can get tricky is in the slog of research. As the weeks of reading and notation creep by and the number of sources mounts, careless attribution can unwittingly become part of the process. Who said that… this guy or that one? Oh-oh, is that my jotted observation or the stated view of another? Such mistakes are understandable, but unless they are cleared up prior to submission or publication, they can explode into mighty embarrassments. Don’t get sloppy.
研究千頭萬緒時，引述最常出錯。不知不覺讀了幾個禮拜的書、做了幾個禮拜的筆記後，資料逐漸累積，一不小心就可能犯錯。這句話是甲說的，還是乙說的？糟糕，這句話是從我的觀察筆記得來的，還是其他人闡釋的觀點？這樣的錯誤可以理解，但在論文送出發表，務必排除這些疏漏，否則結果可能很難堪。切記不要馬虎行事。

TPS的編輯教授在此歡迎關於學術文章的所有詢問，當然，其實他並沒有足夠的時間給你。他擁有終身教職的教授身份，也是著名的學術巨作作者。即便如此，他仍大方地接受你們的詢問。將關於學術方面的詢問寫在下方，你將獲得教授的親自指導，陶冶對學術的探索與啟發。
The professor awaits your query on academic writing, though in all honesty, he doesn’t have a lot of time for you. He is a tenured full professor and working on yet another magnificent academic tome. Even so, he has graciously consented to entertain your question. Submit it and prepare to be edified.

QUESTION: I set out to do a case study and to write about it. The results weren’t pretty. They were ugly, in fact, but my professor’s criticism wasn’t especially constructive. What are the rules for good case study papers?
我很認真地做了個案研究，寫了報告，但結果不太理想。報告結果滿糟的，而且教授也沒有給我什麼建設性的評語。要寫出好的個案研究報告有哪些原則呢？

I apologize for your professor not being constructive in analyzing your paper. Coaching students through error is one of an instructor’s primary missions and it sounds as though your instructor forgot that. Maybe it was just a bad day. Perhaps you could add something to the literature of teaching by doing a case study of your professor! Seriously, whatever errors you made in the paper in question are correctable. Try again. A case study can be a powerful research tool and, when properly reported, is an exemplary investigative approach to new understanding.
很遺憾你的教授沒有好好分析論文，給你建設性的建議；指導教授的主要任務就是指導學生從錯誤中學習，你的教授似乎忘了這點。也許你只是運氣不好，說不定你可以拿你的指導教授來做個案研究，為教學研究添加幾筆參考文獻……！說真的，不論你在論文裡犯了什麼錯誤，都可以修正，再試試看吧。個案研究是很有用的研究工具，如果能以適切的方法來呈現，也是探索新知的好方法。

A primary rule is that a case study report must be structured correctly. Typically, this means introduction of a studied subject, followed by a detailed, chronological report of the conduct of the study, and then a systematic account of the results of the study. Each section is equally important. The other usual requirement is that study results either affirm a standing theory or enunciate a new theory. Unless this relationship of theory and practice (the case study) is established, all you have is an anecdote. Anecdotal reports are not always meaningful.
個案研究的首要規則是結構一定要正確，一般來說，首先應介紹研究主題，接著說明詳情，依時間先後闡述研究內容，然後以整體的角度討論研究結果，每個章節都一樣重要。另一個常見的要求就是研究結果必須證實現有的理論，或闡明新的理論。理論與實踐（你的個案研究）間一定要建立起關係，否則你的研究就只是軼事，而軼事研究是沒有多大意義的。

A case study should be tied to a theory in the planning stage. A researcher can determine in advance what principle is likely to be reaffirmed in a case study or what theoretical principle might be identified. The outcome of a genuine case study never should be presumed, nor should the results conformed to fit a presumption, but the concept and hypothesis surrounding a study should be identified up front. By so doing, study results—expected or unexpected—can be cleanly interpreted. After data and observations are compiled, the task becomes writing it well.
個案研究在規劃階段就應該與理論連結，研究者可以事先判斷什麼理論能獲得個案研究證實，或研究可以支持什麼理論原則。如此一來，研究結果無論是否在意料之中，都能清楚詮釋。等資料與觀察都整理好了，剩下的任務就是把論文寫好了。

真正的學者不會竊取他人的想法，不過研究過程中，有時可能無意間侵占了其他研究者的想法或表達方式。本系列「避免抄襲的七大方法」提供訣竅，幫助你避免不小心冒用他人的心血結晶。每則訣竅將刊登在 TPS 專頁。
A true scholar is not a thief. Yet stealing another researcher’s ideas or method of expressing them sometimes happens inadvertently in the course of research. How to avoid accidentally passing off someone else’s work as your own is the subject of this series, “7 Tips for Avoiding Plagiarism.” Each of the tips will be presented on the TPS Fan page before being compiled with the others as a series.

Tip # 2 – Strive to produce original content
方法二：力求論文內容原創

Academic research and writing never is 100 percent original. Even the author of a paper of profound discovery and revolutionary argument must acknowledge predecessors whose foundational work has been eclipsed by the new paper. Citation of previous work always should be complete to give proper credit, as well as to indicate where new thinking begins. The point is, even the most original of papers will incorporate old material to some extent.
學術寫作與研究不可能百分之百原創，即使論文在探索上有許多斬獲，提出革命性的論點，也應該聲明文章是奠基於哪些前人著作，並從中青出於藍。引用前人著作，務必清楚說明來源，並指出新的思想從何衍生，這樣引用才完整。重點是，不管論文有多麼原創，也必然結合了某些過去的資料。

Yet academic writing with the most impact is writing that has not previously been read. The interest of a reader is immediately captured and held by an intellectual argument that has not been formulated and written down before. Fresh conclusions that reflect fresh research will have a reader thumbing back through a paper for its highlights. This is the value of trying for originality in academic papers—a reward that is measured in respect and superior ranking.
然而，學術論文中影響力最大的，還是過去沒有人讀過的部分。未曾形諸文字的討論，會立刻吸引讀者的興趣，讓讀者興致勃勃地讀下去。若研究內容新鮮，引出的結論也新鮮，讀者還會回頭再讀，尋找重點。努力寫作創新論文的價值就在這裡，作者會受到敬重，獲得出色的評價。

Striving for original content in a paper is a bulwark against plagiarism, too. A mind set upon finding “new stuff” is not nearly as likely to steal someone else’s work as is a person content to cobble together “old stuff” in a way that disguises its roots. Intent separates the accidental, and often excusable, plagiarist from the person of lesser conscience who would rather expend energy swiping another’s work than to labor at true discovery. Such slatternly thinking is inexcusable.
力求論文內容原創也是防堵剽竊的好方法。若作者一心想尋找新材料，就不可能盜用其他人的心血結晶，把舊材料拼拼湊湊，還想掩飾材料的出處。有心的研究者即使無意間挪用他人資料，通常也情有可原，相較之下，缺乏操守的研究者卻把時間花在抄襲他人心血，不肯努力探索新事物。這樣的自甘墮落就沒有任何藉口了。

TPS的編輯教授在此歡迎關於學術文章的所有詢問，當然，其實他並沒有足夠的時間給你。他擁有終身教職的教授身份，也是著名的學術巨作作者。即便如此，他仍大方地接受你們的詢問。將關於學術方面的詢問寫在下方，你將獲得教授的親自指導，陶冶對學術的探索與啟發。
The professor awaits your query on academic writing, though in all honesty, he doesn’t have a lot of time for you. He is a tenured full professor and working on yet another magnificent academic tome. Even so, he has graciously consented to entertain your question. Submit it and prepare to be edified.

QUESTION: I always include statistics when I can to prove different points of a paper, because the numbers sometimes tell the story better than words can. How do I know when I have overused statistics in a paper?
問：我寫論文時，常用統計數字論證文章討論的差異，因為有時候數字比文字解釋更清楚。我該怎麼判斷自己在論文裡是不是用了太多統計數字？

One cannot address this subject without rolling out the truism about statistics, namely, that there are lies, damned lies, and statistics. The inference is, of course, that while hard numbers might seem straight-forward fact, when misused, numbers can be as misleading as any stated falsehood. For example, an imbalanced sampling can produce numbers skewed one way or the other. Or a false cause-and-effect relationship might be deduced from raw data, either from error or on purpose. Statistics unquestionably do not tell a whole story when they are used mischievously.
討論統計時一定會碰上這句眾所皆知的名言：「謊言、該死的謊言，統計」。當然，這句話是說，具體的數字看起來可能是明白的事實，但若是誤用，數字也會造成誤導，成為謊言。例如，抽樣不公會使結果扭曲，原始數據也可能推斷出錯誤的因果關係，這些錯誤可能是無意的，也可能是有意的。顯然統計數字若未慎用，便無法呈現事實的全貌。

So how often should you employ statistics in an academic paper? As often as the numbers can honestly advance or bolster an argument. That is the purpose of every argumentative device employed by a writer in a paper, to persuade the reader of the worth of an argument. Yet you are right to fear that too much of a good thing can detract from, rather than add to, the overall effort to persuade. At some point, numbers piled on numbers begin to look like padding. After all, academic papers are exercises in written communication, not statistical round-ups.
所以，學術論文應該用多少統計數字呢？只要數字能實實在在地改善或加強論點就沒問題，一如作者在論文中使用的每項論證工具，都是為了讓讀者相信論點的重要。不過，你的考量沒錯，好工具過度使用，確實可能減損說服力，而非增加說服力。數字層層堆疊，到了某種程度看起來就像在充版面。畢竟，學術文章應該要用文字溝通，不應堆砌統計數字。

The other misstep in using statistics concerns interpretation. Some data need no interpretation beyond a succinct restatement. Other compiled numbers need restating in some detail to reinforce the import of the numbers or to ensure that the reader grasps their meaning. (If even more explanation is needed, a footnoted table probably is the wiser choice.) Where some writers err is in misinterpreting numbers or in applying them too generally to make a case. A pertinent reminder: The professor reading a paper is apt to be as statistically conversant as the writer.
使用統計數字另一個錯誤則和解釋有關，有些數據只需要簡潔重述，不需要解釋，有些整理後的數據則需要詳加闡述，強調數據的重要性，讓讀者把握數字意涵（如果這樣解釋還不夠，使用表格並在下方加註或許會更理想）。有時作者詮釋數據失當，有時為了解釋又過分推論。請切記，閱讀論文的教授，往往和作者一樣精通統計。

真正的學者不會竊取他人的想法，不過研究過程中，有時可能無意間侵占了其他研究者的想法或表達方式。本系列「避免抄襲的七大方法」提供訣竅，幫助你避免不小心冒用他人的心血結晶。每則訣竅將刊登在 TPS 專頁。
A true scholar is not a thief. Yet stealing another researcher’s ideas or method of expressing them sometimes happens inadvertently in the course of research. How to avoid accidentally passing off someone else’s work as your own is the subject of this series, “7 Tips for Avoiding Plagiarism.” Each of the tips will be presented on the TPS Fan page before being compiled with the others as a series.

Tip # 1 – Know plagiarism when you see it
方法一：了解何為剽竊

First of all, the assumption is that no true scholar wants credit for another scholar’s work. Such a desire nullifies any claim to being a scholar, after all, for a plagiarizer quite evidently has not learned enough to teach anyone anything. The root word of plagiary refers to kidnapping; there is no question that a plagiarist is a person trading in ill-gotten information. So every true researcher should be able to identify plagiarism and want to avoid it to ensure the integrity of a work.
首先，我們假設真正的學者不會侵占其他學者的心血，否則他就失去學者的資格；畢竟，如果一個人只會剽竊，他的學識必定不足以為人師。剽竊 (plagiary) 一詞的詞根意謂巧取豪奪，無疑地，剽竊者傳遞的知識都是以不正當的方式取得。因此，每個真正的研究者應該要能判別何為剽竊，並竭力避免，如此工作成果在道德誠信上才站得住腳。

Yet accidents happen. An academic project of any length has multiple entry points for inadvertent plagiarism by the most respected researcher. Such slip-ups—with the attendant embarrassment and professional penalties upon exposure—can be avoided if a researcher knows what constitutes plagiarism and maintains a guard against it. This presumes a scholar is not outright copying material or otherwise trafficking in forgery. For that, there is no hope.
不過，意外難免，一篇論文不論長短，即使由最德高望重的學者撰寫，也有許多機會在無意間造成剽竊；這種行為如果一旦揭露，不僅作者無地自容，還會遭到學術懲處。如果研究者知道何謂剽竊，並戒慎警惕，這種錯誤就可以避免。前提是，學者並非直接抄襲他人作品，也未大量使用捏造資料，因為這種行為是無藥可救的。

Plagiarism’s danger area for honest researchers is about fully giving credit. When credit for authorship is insufficiently accorded, a reader attributes to the writer something properly attributed to someone else. This can happen through incomplete quotations, or paraphrases that really are exact quotes, or from some other failure to fully identify a source. It is critical that a researcher separate original and borrowed ideas by clearly declaring the latter. Know your mind.
對誠實的研究者而言，剽竊最可能發生在未充分說明資料出處時。未充分註明出處，讀者可能把應歸功給原作者的內容歸功給其他人；這種情況包括引用不完全、應換句話說時卻照抄原文，或者未充分註明資料來源。研究者一定要分清自己原創的想法，與借用自他人的想法，若為借用，必須明確說明。你必須能掌握自己的思想。

TPS的編輯教授在此歡迎關於學術文章的所有詢問，當然，其實他並沒有足夠的時間給你。他擁有終身教職的教授身份，也是著名的學術巨作作者。即便如此，他仍大方地接受你們的詢問。將關於學術方面的詢問寫在下方，你將獲得教授的親自指導，陶冶對學術的探索與啟發。
The professor awaits your query on academic writing, though in all honesty, he doesn’t have a lot of time for you. He is a tenured full professor and working on yet another magnificent academic tome. Even so, he has graciously consented to entertain your question. Submit it and prepare to be edified.

QUESTION: I seem to lack “tense sense.” That’s how a classmate puts it. I can’t seem to get the tense right in many of my research paper sentences, switching back and forth between present and past tenses. Is there a rule to help me?
根據我同學的說法，我好像沒有什麼「時態知覺」，論文裡很多句子的時態都有問題，在現在和過去式之間擺盪著。有什麼規則可以幫幫我嗎？

“Tense sense.” Cute. I suppose your classmate says using periods and commas inconsistently is “punctuation fluctuation” and being pretentious in your word choices is “grammar glamour.” (If I continue much longer in this vein, I will be guilty of “cluster bluster.”) Yes, correct and consistent use of verb tense in sentences helps weld a paper into a whole document, whereas sloppily constructed sentences loosen the grip of a paper on a reader. The impact of shifting tenses often is so subtle that a reader can’t pin down the cause of the drift; however, it is sensed.
「時態知覺」，說得好。我猜你同學會用「標點動亂」來形容句點和逗點使用失當，用「字彙自戀」形容矯揉造作的用詞（再舉例下去，我就犯了「範例氾濫」的毛病了）。的確，正確的動詞時態能連接句子，打造完整的文章；句子結構如果鬆散，文章就無法吸引讀者。時態改變的影響很微妙，讀者可能說不出所以然，不過仍然感覺得出差別。

Generally, an introductory section of a paper uses the present tense to good advantage. The body of the work is often couched in the past tense in describing completed research and materials of generally established authority. The concluding segments of a paper often allude to future research on a subject, which can, of course, employ the future tense. While a writer is not locked into this pattern of tense usage, it is a functional application of tenses and, in the end, how writing functions is the critical difference between clear communication and fogginess.
一般來說，論文的前言會用現在式，強調文章的優點；而論文主體措辭多半用過去式，描述已經完成的研究與可信的資料；結論部分通常引申該主題未來的研究，因此便可以使用未來式。雖然這種用法並非硬性規定，但幾乎已經成了標準公式。何況，文章能清楚說明概念，或概念模糊不清，端視文法是否正確發揮功能。

No neat rules have been formulated to guide academic writers except to have clearly in mind both time and place. This is especially important if an attempt is made to tinker with timelines for dramatic effect. For example, it can gratify a writer and enlighten a reader when a particularly satisfying research moment is reported in a tense that transports the reader back to the exciting moment of discovery. You are there! Yet if the transition into and out of the present tense is not smooth and seamless, the reader is not excited; he is confused by the shifting perspective.
使用時態並無簡潔的規則可循，作者心中必須清楚了解時間和地點，特別是若想要改變時間順序，創造戲劇化的效果，這點觀念特別重要。舉例來說，若時態的改變，能帶領讀者回到研究發現那振奮人心的一刻，創造如親眼目睹的效果，不僅作者心滿意足，讀者也能受到啟發。但若改用現在式，轉換必須流暢自然，否則讀者非但不會受感動，反而會因為切入角度變動不定而困惑不已。